Copper

Copper is a malleable metal with multiple uses, including in construction, industrial machinery and equipment, electronics and communications, and electricity, and copper’s conductivity means that it is a vital metal for renewable energy technologies. Over the past decade, more than 30% of global copper demand has been met through recycling of pre- and post-consumer scrap.

Copper recycling feedstock

Copper is 100% recyclable without loss of quality, and around two-thirds of the copper produced since 1900 remains in use today. Globally, recycled copper meets about 32% of total though this figure varies by region and reaches nearly 50% of demand in Europe. Whether pre- or post-consumer, copper scrap is graded as either bright, #1, or #2, in order of purity and value. Lower value copper scrap tends to be alloyed.

Pre-consumer copper scrap includes home scrap (off-spec material from refineries and smelters) and prompt scrap (further processed downstream materials like alloys) and is typically well-recycled through closed-loop systems.

Post-consumer copper scrap comes from products that have completed their use and is more complex to process due to mixed materials and potentially hazardous waste. With the highest electrical conductivity of any metal except silver, copper is essential for power generation and transmission, making up 44% of its use according to the International Copper Association. Another 14% of copper produced is used in electrical equipment for appliances and electronics, while 12% is utilized in the transport sector, where copper wiring systems power various vehicle functions. Approximately 20% of copper goes into buildings for plumbing, cooling, and roofing, offering durable, low-maintenance, and recyclable materials. The remaining 10% is used in consumer goods like coins, jewellery, and musical instruments. This extensive copper stock, spread across diverse applications, is often referred to as society’s “urban mine,” representing around 33 years of global copper production.

Copper scrap is recycled via two main pathways: direct-use scrap and secondary production. Direct-use scrap, usually high-grade (>99%) #1 scrap from both pre-consumer or clean end-of-life sources, is handled by semi-fabricators with minimal processing, offering high energy and cost efficiency. By contrast, lower-grade #2 scrap, mainly from post-consumer, end-of-life products with higher impurities, requires smelting and refining in . These two types of smelters differ in the amount of scrap they can process. While primary smelters can only process a limited scrap to concentrate ratio (around 15%), modern secondary smelters are more flexible and can vary the ratio of scrap and concentrate. #2 scrap trades at a discount due to its impurity levels, which smelters can profitably upgrade to refined copper.

Insulated copper wire scrap is another common post-consumer feedstock. Insulated copper wire is also graded #1 and #2 based on gauge size, alloying, coating, and the density of the plastic insulation. Each of these factors impact recycling feasibility, cost, and resource intensiveness.

Copper has maintained over the past decade (excluding direct-use scrap) due to its high recyclability and consistent scrap availability, though challenges remain compared to metals like aluminium. Post-consumer copper recycling is complicated by the high cost and technical difficulty of separating copper and its alloys from end-of-life products like electronics and contaminated steel. The complexity of these processes often renders recovery economically unviable—especially given the hazardous materials involved and insufficient pre-processing capacity. As a result, large volumes of copper scrap are lost to landfill.

Copper products generally have longer lifespans—ranging from 5 to 50 years—making timely scrap recovery difficult, especially from complex waste like buried cables. Including direct-use scrap, secondary supply has averaged around over the last decade. Accessing older, legacy copper feedstocks remains a challenge, as much of it is locked in infrastructure like buildings and cables, often inaccessible or economically unviable to recover. Additionally, low profit margins in scrap collection discourage investment, further limiting recovery potential. With future copper demand outpacing supply—only 70% of projected needs met by 2035 through current raw copper extraction projects—increasing recycling is crucial to avoid supply bottlenecks and support the global transition to electrification and clean energy.

Scrap from both EVs and storage is the fastest growing source of both pre- and post-consumer scrap, derived from both manufacturing processes and end-of-life sources. This feedstock is projected to increase over 35-fold between 2030 and 2050, due to EVs’ higher copper intensity compared to conventional vehicles. Although electricity networks will expand significantly in low-emission scenarios, their long lifespans mean only a modest increase in scrap from this sector by 2050.