Nickel

Nickel has one of the highest recycling efficiencies among metals, with a global recycling rate for end-of-life products estimated at 68%.

Nickel recycling feedstocks

In 2024, post-consumer recycling from end-of-life products met approximately 27% of overall nickel demand.  Globally, from 2000 to 2022, about 62 million tons of nickel were consumed. Of this total amount, approximately 40 million tons were sourced from raw material production and 22 million tons – about 35% – came from pre- and post-consumer scrap recycling.

Nickel is a critical input for lithium-ion batteries (LIB), lending its name to key types like Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC) and Nickel Cobalt Aluminium Oxide (NCA). As electric vehicles (EV) adoption has soared in recent years, recycling post-consumer LIB batteries has become essential for recovering critical minerals, including nickel. By 2030, an estimated 1.6 million tons of used battery packs could be available for recycling, offering a significant secondary source of nickel.

The use of recycled nickel results in a significantly smaller carbon footprint as compared to raw mined nickel, though precise calculations are complex because nickel recycling is rarely a standalone process from alloy or battery material recycling. For instance, production of 1kg of high-purity primary nickel emits about 13kg of CO₂,   and producing 1kg of NMC cathode material using recycled battery metals – including nickel – emits about 21.9kg of CO₂ – compared to approximately 42.8kg when using primary mined materials.

Nickel is recycled from both pre- and post-consumer scrap sources. While both scrap feedstocks are important, post-consumer materials – especially from the rapidly expanding EV sector – will play an increasingly critical role in the coming decades.

Pre-consumer nickel scrap refers to material discarded during manufacturing processes before a product reaches the consumer. This includes offcuts, trimmings, and rejected pieces from production of stainless steel, superalloys, and battery components.

Due to its origin, pre-consumer nickel scrap is typically clean, homogeneous, and well-documented in terms of alloy composition, making it sought after for recycling. Its consistent quality allows for straightforward re-melting and alloying, often requiring minimal processing. Consequently, pre-consumer scrap is frequently reintegrated into production cycles with relative ease, contributing to the supply of secondary nickel materials.

However, challenges exist in the recycling of certain pre-consumer scrap sources. For instance, recent studies have shown that pre-consumer materials with low nickel content or high levels of impurities like phosphorus are often not recycled due to quality concerns. These materials may be landfilled or treated as waste, highlighting the need for improved processing technologies and standards to enhance recycling rate.

On the other hand, post-consumer nickel scrap originates from end-of-life products, including industrial equipment, consumer goods, and batteries. Industrial activities like construction also generate nickel-containing scrap, such as stainless steel and alloy steel waste. Recycling these materials is a well-established practice, contributing to the supply of secondary nickel. End-of-life products, particularly batteries, are another significant source of post-consumer nickel scrap.

Approximately 68% of nickel from consumer products is recycled, reflecting the robust recycling infrastructure for nickel-containing goods. Among the most efficiently recycled products are batteries, especially nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) and nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) types, with companies achieving up to 99.995% recovery rates for nickel in their battery recycling processes. Looking ahead, recycled nickel could meet 67% to 96% of the demand for nickel needed for EV batteries by 2050.

As adoption of circular economy principles increases across industries, enhanced recovery of both pre- and post-consumer feedstock types will be essential to meet growing nickel demand while reducing ESG impacts associated with primary production.